THE Kidneys,
two in number, are situated in the back part of the abdomen, and are for the
purpose of separating from the blood certain materials which,
when
dissolved in a quantity of water, also separated from the blood by the kid-
neys, constitute the urine.
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They are placed in the loins, one on each side of the vertebral
column, behind the peritoneum, and surrounded by a mass of fat and loose
areolar tissue. Theil' upper extremity is on a level with the upper border of
the twelfth dorsal vertebra, their lower extremity on a level with the third
lumbar. The right kidney is usually on a slightly lower level than the left,
probably on account of the vicinity of the liver.
Each kidney is about four inches in length, two to two and a half in
breadth, and rather more than one inch in thickness. 'I'he left is somewhat
longer, though narrower, than the right. The weight of the kidney in the
adult male varies from 4t ounces to 6 ounces; in the
adult female, from 4
ounces to 5t ounces.
The combined weight of the two kidneys in proportion to the body is about 1
in 240.
The kidney has a characteristic form. It is flattened on its sides and
presents at one part of its circumference a hollow. It is larger at its upper
than its lower extremity. It presents for examination two surfaces, two
borders, and an upper and lower extremity.
Its anterior surface is convex, looks forward and outward. and
is partially covered by peritoneum. The right kidney in its upper
three-fourths is in contact with the posterior part of the under surface of
the right lobe of the liver. on which it produces a concave impression, the impreesio
renalis (page 918). Toward its inner border it is covered by the second
part of the duodenum, while its lower and outer part is in relation with the
hepatic flexure of the colon. 'I'he relation of the second part of the
duodenum to the front of thc right kidney is a varying one. The left kidney
is covered above by the posterior surface of the stomach, below the stomach
by the pancreas, behind which are the splenic vessels. Its lower half is in
contact with some of the coils of the small intestine and sometimes with the
third part of the duodenum. Near its outer border the anterior surface lies
behind the spleen and the splenic flexure of the colon.
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INFORMATION ABOUT HUMAN BODY.
Monday, 13 May 2013
THE KIDNEYS
THE THYROID GLAND.
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THE TEETH
The human teeth are arranged in two parabolic arches, the upper arch being larger, its teeth overlapping the lower. The average distance between the centres of the condyles of the inferior maxillary bones is about four inches. which is also the distance from either of these points to the line of junction between the lower incisor teeth
Owing to the smaller sizes of the lower incisors, the teeth of the lower jaw are each one half a tooth in advance of its upper fellow, so that each tooth of the dental series has two antagonists, with the exception of the lower central incisors a.nd upper third molars
The third molars are called the wisdom teeth (dentes sapientia!) from their late eruption: they have threc cusps upon the upper and five upon the lower. The three roots of the upper are frequently fused together, forming a grooved cone, which is usually curved backward. The roots of the lower, two in number, are compressed together and curve backward
The crowns
are cuboidal in form, are convex buccally and 1inguall:-; they
are flattened mesially and distally. They are formed by the fusion of three
primitive cuspids in the upper and four in the lower. '1'0 these are added
in the first and . second upper molars a disto-lingual tubercle, and in the
first and third molars of the lower jaw a disto-buccal tubercle. The unions
of the primiti\'e forms are marked
by sulci. The necks of these teeth are large and rhomboidal in form.
The roots of the
Uppel' molars are three in number-one large lingual and two smaller buccal
roots. In the lower, two roots are found, a mesial and a distal, each of
which is much flattened from before backward.
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Sunday, 12 May 2013
THE LUNGS.
THE SPLEEN
The
Spleen belongs to that class of bodies which are known as ductless
[llands.
It
is probably related to the blood-vascular system, but in consequence of its
anatomical relationship to the stomach and its physiological relationship to
the liver it is convenient to describe it in this place. It is
situated principally in the left hypochondriac region, its Upper and inner
extremity extending into the epigastric region; lying between the fundus of
the stomach and the Diaphragm. It is the largest of the ductless glands, and
measures some five or six inches in length. It is of an oblong, flattened
form, soft, of very brittle consistence, highly vascular, and of a dark
purplish color.
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THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
have
developed to the practical exclusion of the other elements. It is found in
the ligamenta subflava, in the vocal cords, in the longitudinal coat of the
trachea and bronchi, in the inner coats of-the blood-vessels, especially the
larger arteries, a.nd to a very co.nsiderable ex~ent in t~e thyro-hyoid,
crico-thyroid, and ~tylo-hy~id ligaments. It IS also found In the ligamentum
nuchre of the lower animals (FIg. 614). In some parts, where the fibres are
broad and .Iarge and the netwo.rk close, the tissue presents the appearance
of a membrane, with gaps or perforatIOns corresponding to the intervening
space. This is to be found in the i~ner coat of the arteries, and to it the
name of fenestrated
membrane has
been given by Henle. The yellow elastic fibres remain unaltered by acetic
acid.
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THE LIVER
The hepatic cells are of more or
less spheroidal form, but may be rounded, flattened, or many-sided from
mutual compression. They vary in size from the n\o to the ~ of an
inch in diameter. They consist of a honeycomb network (Klein) without any cell-wall, and contain one or sometimes two
distinct nuclei. In the nucleus is a highly refracting nucleolus with
granules. Embedded in the honeycomb network are numerous yellow particles,
the coloring matter of the bile, and oil-globules. The cells adhere together
by their surfaces so as to form rows, which radiate from the centre to the
circumference of the lobules.' As stated above, they are the chief
agents in the secretion of the bile.
The Blood-vessels.-The blood in the
capillary plexus around the livercells is brought
to the liver principally by the portal vein, but also to a certain extent by
the hepatic artery. For the sake of clearness the distribution of the blood
derived from the hepatic artery may be considered first.
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